Low Embodied Carbon and Energy Materials in Building Systems: A Case Study of Reinforcing Clay Houses in Desert Regions

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran

2 Department of Civil Engineering, Alborz University, Qazvin, Iran

3 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran

4 Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, Canada

Abstract

Over 40% of the world's energy consumption occurs in the construction sector. However, some countries do not address environmental criteria as design requirements in their construction codes. Accordingly, this research aims to provide a solution that reduces embodied energy and carbon while preserving historical and traditional textures of Iran. The comparison of embodied carbon and energy between new concrete and traditional buildings was performed by calculating the amount of construction materials. By examining both types of buildings, the reduction of embodied carbon and energy in a combined building system was evaluated. In the following, using SWOT analysis, the strategies of this combination were investigated. Clay building has less embodied energy and carbon than concrete one despite containing more mass of materials. According to SWOT analysis, the strategy of integrating clay and concrete systems is presented. The proposed system in compare to the concrete structure resulted in around 40% and 35% reduction in embodied carbon and energy, respectively. Extending this strategy throughout the country saves 13 million tons of embodied carbon and 130 million GJ of embodied energy. Finding a solution based on sustainability considerations to preserve historical texture is one of the basic concerns of countries where these textures form a part of their identity. The presented combined system, while paying attention to sustainable building and urban development, is a desirable solution to reduce buildings' embodied carbon and energy.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

  1. WCED, S. W. S. “World commission on environment and development.” Our Common Future, Vol. 17, (1987), 1-91.
  2. Mohamad, M. I., Nekooie, M. A., Ismail, Z. B., and Taherkhani, R. Amphibious urbanization as a sustainable flood mitigation strategy in south-east Asia. Advanced Materials Research, Vol. 622-623, (2013). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.622-623.1696
  3. Taherkhani, R. Development of a Social Sustainability Model in Industrial Building System. Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia 2013.
  4. Taherkhani, R., Saleh, A. L., Mansur, S. A., Nekooie, M. A., Noushiravan, M., and Hamdani, M. “A Systematic Research Gap Finding Framework: Case Study of Construction Management.” Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, Vol. 2, No. 5, (2012), 5129-5136.
  5. Taherkhani, R. “A Strategy towards Sustainable Industrial Building Systems (IBS): The Case of Malaysia.” Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 4, (2014), 86-90. Retrieved from http://www.jmest.org/wp-content/uploads/JMESTN42350083.pdf
  6. Taherkhani, R. “An integrated social sustainability assessment framework: the case of construction industry.” Open House International, (2022). https://doi.org/10.1108/OHI-04-2022-0098
  7. Oke, A., Aghimien, D., Aigbavboa, C., and Musenga, C. “Drivers of Sustainable Construction Practices in the Zambian Construction Industry.” Energy Procedia, Vol. 158, (2019), 3246-3252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.995
  8. Zimmermann, R. K., Skjelmose, O., Jensen, K. G., Jensen, K. K., and Birgisdottir, H. “Categorizing Building certification systems according to the definition of sustainable building.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 471, No. 9, (2019), 92060. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/471/9/092060.
  9. Rozana, Z., Khalid Ahmed, M., Zin, R. M., Zolfagharian, S., Nourbakhsh, M., Nekooie, M. A., and Taherkhani, R. “Sustainable Development Factors for Land Development in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia’s Campus.” OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol. 3, No. 9, (2012), 105-110.
  10. Taherkhani, R., Hashempour, N., Shaahnazari, S., and Taherkhani, F. “Sustainable cities through the right selection of vegetation types for green roofs.” International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, Vol. 13, No. 3, (2022), 365-388. https://doi.org/10.22712/susb.20220027
  11. Tabatabaee, S., and Weil, B. S. “Definition and Frameworks on a Life-Cycle Negative Growth Rate for Energy and Carbon in an Academic Campus.” In Handbook of Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development in Higher Education, 325-339, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47877-7_22
  12. Ma, J.-J., Du, G., Zhang, Z.-K., Wang, P.-X., and Xie, B.-C. “Life cycle analysis of energy consumption and CO2 emissions from a typical large office building in Tianjin, China.” Building and Environment, Vol. 117, (2017), 36-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.03.005
  13. Roohollah Taherkhani, Najme Hashempour, and Mitra Lot. “Sustainable-resilient urban revitalization framework: Residential buildings renovation in a historic district.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 286, (2021), 124952. https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124952
  14. Farese, P. “How to build a low-energy future.” Nature, Vol. 488, No. 7411, (2012), 275-277. https://doi.org/10.1038/488275a
  15. Hashempour, N., Taherkhani, R., and Mahdikhani, M. “Energy performance optimization of existing buildings: A literature review.” Sustainable Cities and Society, Vol. 54, (2020), 101967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101967
  16. Aram, K., Taherkhani, R., and Šimelytė, A. “Multistage Optimization toward a Nearly Net Zero Energy Building Due to Climate Change.” Energies, Vol. 15, No. 3, (2022), 983. https://doi.org/10.3390/EN15030983
  17. Weiler, V., Harter, H., and Eicker, U. “Life cycle assessment of buildings and city quarters comparing demolition and reconstruction with refurbishment.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 134, (2017), 319-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.11.004
  18. Copiello, S. “Economic implications of the energy issue: Evidence for a positive non-linear relation between embodied energy and construction cost.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 123, , (2016), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.04.054
  19. Stephan, A., and Stephan, L. “Life cycle energy and cost analysis of embodied, operational and user-transport energy reduction measures for residential buildings.” Applied Energy, Vol. 161, , (2016), 445-464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.023
  20. Crishna, N., Banfill, P. F. G., and Goodsir, S. “Embodied energy and CO2 in UK dimension stone.” Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 55, No. 12, (2011), 1265-1273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.014
  21. Praseeda, K. I., Reddy, B. V. V., and Mani, M. “Embodied and operational energy of urban residential buildings in India.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 110, (2016), 211-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.09.072
  22. Cabeza, L. F., Barreneche, C., Miró, L., Morera, J. M., Bartolí, E., and Fernández, A. I. “Low carbon and low embodied energy materials in buildings: A review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 1, No. 23, (2013), 536-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.017
  23. Dixit, M. K., Fernández-Solís, J. L., Lavy, S., and Culp, C. H. “Need for an embodied energy measurement protocol for buildings: A review paper.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 16, No. 6, (2012), 3730-3743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.03.021
  24. Buchanan, A. H., and Honey, B. G. “Energy and carbon dioxide implications of building construction.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 20, No. 3, (1994), 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(94)90024-8
  25. Gustavsson, L., and Joelsson, A. “Life cycle primary energy analysis of residential buildings.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 42, No. 2, (2010), 210-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.08.017
  26. Kofoworola, O. F., and Gheewala, S. H. “Life cycle energy assessment of a typical office building in Thailand.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 41, No. 10, (2009), 1076-1083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.06.002
  27. Kayaçetin, N. C., and Tanyer, A. M. “Embodied carbon assessment of residential housing at urban scale.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 117, (2020), 109470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109470
  28. Sun, C., Chen, L., and Xu, Y. “Industrial linkage of embodied CO2 emissions: Evidence based on an absolute weighted measurement method.” Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 160, (2020), 104892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104892
  29. Shukla, A., Tiwari, G. N., and Sodha, M. S. “Embodied energy analysis of adobe house.” Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, No. 3, (2009), 755-761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.04.002
  30. Ortiz-Rodríguez, O., Castells, F., and Sonnemann, G. “Life cycle assessment of two dwellings: One in Spain, a developed country, and one in Colombia, a country under development.” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 408, No. 12, (2010), 2435-2443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.02.021
  31. Monteiro, H., and Freire, F. “Environmental life-cycle impacts of a single-family house in Portugal: assessing alternative exterior walls with two methods.” Gazi University Journal of Science, Vol. 24, No. 3, (2011), 527-534.
  32. Atmaca, A., and Atmaca, N. “Life cycle energy (LCEA) and carbon dioxide emissions (LCCO2A) assessment of two residential buildings in Gaziantep, Turkey.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 102, (2015), 417-431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.06.008
  33. Asif, M., Muneer, T., and Kelley, R. “Life cycle assessment: A case study of a dwelling home in Scotland.” Building and Environment, Vol. 42, (2007), 1391-1394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.11.023
  34. Monahan, J., and Powell, J. C. “An embodied carbon and energy analysis of modern methods of construction in housing: A case study using a lifecycle assessment framework.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 43, No. 1, (2011), 179-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.09.005
  35. Luo, Z., Yang, L., and Liu, J. “Embodied carbon emissions of office building: a case study of China’s 78 office buildings.” Building and Environment, Vol. 95, (2016), 365-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.09.018
  36. Gan, V. J. L., Cheng, J. C. P., Lo, I. M. C., and Chan, C. M. “Developing a CO2-e accounting method for quantification and analysis of embodied carbon in high-rise buildings.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 141, (2017), 825-836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.126
  37. Teng, Y., and Pan, W. “Systematic embodied carbon assessment and reduction of prefabricated high-rise public residential buildings in Hong Kong.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 238, (2019), 117791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117791
  38. Finnveden, G., Hauschild, M. Z., Ekvall, T., Guinée, J., Heijungs, R., Hellweg, S., Koehler, A., Pennington, D., and Suh, S. “Recent developments in Life Cycle Assessment.” Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 91, No. 1, (2009), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.06.018
  39. Hauschild, M. Z., Rosenbaum, R. K., and Olsen, S. I. Life Cycle Assessment. New York City, USA: Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3
  40. Curran, M. A. “Life cycle assessment: a review of the methodology and its application to sustainability.” Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 3, (2013), 273-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2013.02.002
  41. Schlanbusch, R. D., Fufa, S. M., Häkkinen, T., Vares, S., Birgisdottir, H., and Ylmén, P. “Experiences with LCA in the Nordic building industry–challenges, needs and solutions.” Energy Procedia, Vol. 96, (2016), 82-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.09.106
  42. Petrovic, B., Myhren, J. A., Zhang, X., Wallhagen, M., and Eriksson, O. “Life Cycle Assessment of Building Materials for a Single-family House in Sweden.” Energy Procedia, Vol. 158, (2019), 3547-3552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.913
  43. RICS. Methodology to calculate embodied carbon of materials. Coventry, UK: Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) Information paper, Vol. 32, (2012), 2012.
  44. Robati, M., Daly, D., and Kokogiannakis, G. “A method of uncertainty analysis for whole-life embodied carbon emissions (CO2-e) of building materials of a net-zero energy building in Australia.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 225, (2019), 541-553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.339
  45. Cabeza, L. F., Rincón, L., Vilariño, V., Pérez, G., and Castell, A. “Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) of buildings and the building sector: A review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 29, (2014), 394-416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.037
  46. Tecchio, P., Gregory, J., Olivetti, E., Ghattas, R., and Kirchain, R. “Streamlining the Life Cycle Assessment of Buildings by Structured Under‐Specification and Probabilistic Triage.” Journal of Industrial Ecology, Vol. 23, No. 1, (2019), 268-279. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12731
  47. Solís-Guzmán, J., Marrero, M., Montes-Delgado, M. V., and Ramírez-de-Arellano, A. “A Spanish model for quantification and management of construction waste.” Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), Vol. 29, No. 9, (2009), 2542-2548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.009
  48. Barbudo, A., Ayuso, J., Lozano, A., Cabrera, M., and López-Uceda, A. “Recommendations for the management of construction and demolition waste in treatment plants.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 27, No. 1, (2020), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05578-0
  49. Ajayi, S. O., and Oyedele, L. O. “Policy imperatives for diverting construction waste from landfill: Experts’ recommendations for UK policy expansion.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 147, (2017), 57-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.075
  50. Menegaki, M., and Damigos, D. “A review on current situation and challenges of construction and demolition waste management.” Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, Vol. 13, (2018), 8-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.02.010
  51. Nikmehr, B., Hosseini, M. R., Rameezdeen, R., Chileshe, N., Ghoddousi, P., and Arashpour, M. “An integrated model for factors affecting construction and demolition waste management in Iran.” Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, Vol. 24, No. 6, (2017), 1246-1268. https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-01-2016-0015
  52. Saghafi, M. D., and Teshnizi, Z. A. H. “Building Deconstruction and Material Recovery in Iran: An Analysis of Major Determinants.” Procedia Engineering, Vol. 21, (2011), 853-863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.2087
  53. Guidance on the legal definition of waste and its application. London, UK.
  54. Adalberth, K. “Energy use during the life cycle of single-unit dwellings: examples.” Building and Environment, Vol. 32, No. 4, (1997), 321-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(96)00069-8
  55. Chen, T. Y., Burnett, J., and Chau, C. K. “Analysis of embodied energy use in the residential building of Hong Kong.” Energy, Vol. 26, No. 4, (2001), 323-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-5442(01)00006-8
  56. Mousavi, B., Lopez, N. S. A., Biona, J. B. M., Chiu, A. S. F., and Blesl, M. “Driving forces of Iran’s CO2 emissions from energy consumption: An LMDI decomposition approach.” Applied Energy, Vol. 206, (2017), 804-814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.199
  57. Dong, C., Dong, X., Jiang, Q., Dong, K., and Liu, G. “What is the probability of achieving the carbon dioxide emission targets of the Paris Agreement? Evidence from the top ten emitters.” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 622, (2018), 1294-1303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.093
  58. Hammond, G., and Jones, C. “Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) Version 2.0, Sustainable Energy Research Team (SERT), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath UK.”
  59. Muralidharan, K. “Six Sigma Project Management.” In Six Sigma for Organizational Excellence, 19-37, Springer.
  60. Debnath, A., Singh, S. V, and Singh, Y. P. “Comparative assessment of energy requirements for different types of residential buildings in India.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 23, No. 2, (1995), 141-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(95)00939-6
  61. Suzuki, M., Oka, T., and Okada, K. “The estimation of energy consumption and CO2 emission due to housing construction in Japan.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 22, No. 2, (1995), 165-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(95)00914-J
  62. Thormark, C. “A low energy building in a life cycle—its embodied energy, energy need for operation and recycling potential.” Building and Environment, Vol. 37, No. 4, (2002), 429-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(01)00033-6
  63. Mithraratne, N., and Vale, B. “Life cycle analysis model for New Zealand houses.” Building and Environment, Vol. 39, No. 4, (2004), 483-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2003.09.008
  64. Casals, X. G. “Analysis of building energy regulation and certification in Europe: Their role, limitations and differences.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 38, No. 5, (2006), 381-392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.05.004
  65. Nässén, J., Holmberg, J., Wadeskog, A., and Nyman, M. “Direct and indirect energy use and carbon emissions in the production phase of buildings: an input-output analysis.” Energy, Vol. 32, No. 9, (2007), 1593-1602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2007.01.002
  66. Huberman, N., and Pearlmutter, D. “A life-cycle energy analysis of building materials in the Negev desert.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 40, No. 5, (2008), 837-848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.06.002
  67. Utama, A., and Gheewala, S. H. “Indonesian residential high rise buildings: A life cycle energy assessment.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 41, No. 11, (2009), 1263-1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.07.025
  68. Blengini, G. A., and Di Carlo, T. “The changing role of life cycle phases, subsystems and materials in the LCA of low energy buildings.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 42, No. 6, (2010), 869-880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.12.009
  69. Ramesh, T., Prakash, R., and Shukla, K. K. “Life cycle energy analysis of buildings: An overview.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 42, No. 10, (2010), 1592-1600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05.007
  70. Gustavsson, L., Joelsson, A., and Sathre, R. “Life cycle primary energy use and carbon emission of an eight-storey wood-framed apartment building.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 42, No. 2, (2010), 230-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.08.018
  71. Leckner, M., and Zmeureanu, R. “Life cycle cost and energy analysis of a Net Zero Energy House with solar combisystem.” Applied Energy, Vol. 88, No. 1, (2011), 232-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.07.031
  72. Dahlstrøm, O., Sørnes, K., Eriksen, S. T., and Hertwich, E. G. “Life cycle assessment of a single-family residence built to either conventional-or passive house standard.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 54, (2012), 470-479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.07.029
  73. Paulsen, J. S., and Sposto, R. M. “A life cycle energy analysis of social housing in Brazil: Case study for the program ‘MY HOUSE MY LIFE.’” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 57, (2013), 95-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.11.014
  74. Paleari, M., Lavagna, M., and Campioli, A. “Life cycle assessment and zero energy residential buildings.” In PLEA 2013.
  75. Berggren, B., Hall, M., and Wall, M. “LCE analysis of buildings-Taking the step towards Net Zero Energy Buildings.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 62, (2013), 381-391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.02.063
  76. Stephan, A., and Stephan, L. “Reducing the total life cycle energy demand of recent residential buildings in Lebanon.” Energy, Vol. 74, (2014), 618-637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.07.028
  77. Dissanayake, D., Jayasinghe, C., and Jayasinghe, M. T. R. “A comparative embodied energy analysis of a house with recycled expanded polystyrene (EPS) based foam concrete wall panels.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 135, (2017), 85-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.11.044
  78. Vitale, P., Spagnuolo, A., Lubritto, C., and Arena, U. “Environmental performances of residential buildings with a structure in cold formed steel or reinforced concrete.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 189, (2018), 839-852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.088
  79. Tavares, V., Lacerda, N., and Freire, F. “Embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions analysis of a prefabricated modular house: The ‘Moby’ case study.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 212, (2019), 1044-1053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.028
  80. Thanu, H. P., Kumari, H. G. K., and Rajasekaran, C. “Sustainable Building Management by Using Alternative Materials and Techniques.” In Sustainable Construction and Building Materials (pp. 583-593). Springer.
  81. Hacker, J. N., De Saulles, T. P., Minson, A. J., and Holmes, M. J. “Embodied and operational carbon dioxide emissions from housing: A case study on the effects of thermal mass and climate change.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 40, No. 3, (2008), 375-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.03.005
  82. Blengini, G. A. “Life cycle of buildings, demolition and recycling potential: A case study in Turin, Italy.” Building and Environment, Vol. 44, No. 2, (2009), 319-330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.03.007
  83. Monteiro, H., and Freire, F. “Life-cycle assessment of a house with alternative exterior walls: Comparison of three impact assessment methods.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 47, (2012), 572-583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.12.032
  84. Mao, C., Shen, Q., Shen, L., and Tang, L. “Comparative study of greenhouse gas emissions between off-site prefabrication and conventional construction methods: Two case studies of residential projects.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 66, (2013), 165-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.07.033
  85. Lamnatou, C., Notton, G., Chemisana, D., and Cristofari, C. “Life cycle analysis of a building-integrated solar thermal collector, based on embodied energy and embodied carbon methodologies.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 84, (2014), 378-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.08.011
  86. Galua, R. D., and Tobias, E. G. “An assessment of sustainability of a green residential building in an urban setting: focus in Pueblo de Oro, Cagayan de Oro City.” Advances in Environmental Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 1, (2015), 60-69.
  87. Kumanayake, R., Luo, H., and Paulusz, N. “Assessment of material related embodied carbon of an office building in Sri Lanka.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 166, (2018), 250-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.01.065
  88. Citherlet, S., and Defaux, T. “Energy and environmental comparison of three variants of a family house during its whole life span.” Building and Environment, Vol. 42, No. 2, (2007), 591-598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.09.025
  89. Sartori, I., and Hestnes, A. G. “Energy use in the life cycle of conventional and low-energy buildings: A review article.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 39, No. 3, (2007), 249-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.07.001
  90. Utama, A., and Gheewala, S. H. “Life cycle energy of single landed houses in Indonesia.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 40, No. 10, (2008), 1911-1916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.04.017
  91. Petrovic, B., Myhren, J. A., Zhang, X., Wallhagen, M., and Eriksson, O. “Life cycle assessment of a wooden single-family house in Sweden.” Applied Energy, Vol. 251, (2019), 113253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.05.056
  92. Hernandez, P., Oregi, X., Longo, S., and Cellura, M. “Life-Cycle Assessment of Buildings.” In Handbook of Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 207-261, Elsevier.
  93. Tettey, U. Y. A., Dodoo, A., and Gustavsson, L. “Effect of different frame materials on the primary energy use of a multi storey residential building in a life cycle perspective.” Energy and Buildings, Vol. 185, (2019), 259-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.12.017
International Journal of Engineering
Volume 36, Issue 8
TRANSACTIONS B: Applications
August 2023
Pages 1409-1428

Files

Cited by

Share

How to cite

Statistics